The study
This study examined the role of educational relationships in out-of-school activities
and their impact on young people’s learning. Its aim was to compare the experiences
of young people who live in impoverished circumstances with those of their more
affl uent peers in order to explore implications for educational achievement.
The relationship between poverty and lack of school attainment is well established
(Gregg et al., 1999; HM Treasury, 1999; Ennals, 2005). Policy initiatives to address
this have only met with partial success (Bradshaw, 2005) and many young people
are still trapped in a cycle of deprivation, educational underachievement and
failure. The research reported here was premised on the view that positive, focused
educational relationships between teachers and pupils are likely to promote positive
attitudes to school and learning which will ultimately lead to greater achievement.
However, to successfully establish such relationships both pupils and teachers
need highly developed interpersonal skills and understanding. The study explored
the opportunities young people have for developing these skills in the educational
relationships they experience out of school.
The study used mapping and interview techniques to address three questions:
> What do young people gain from engagement in out-of-school activities?
> Do young people from low-income families participate less in these activities than
those from more affl uent homes?
> If so what can be done to redress the added disadvantage that this creates for
young people in low-income families?
Our sample comprised 25 young people in receipt of free school meals and attending
schools in the South West of England. They were matched by 30 of their peers from
the same schools, but living in more affl uent circumstances. Twenty-six of the young
people were in Year 6 (11 years old) and 29 were in Year 9 (14 years old).
Findings
What did the young people do?
The young people reported a considerable range of out-of-school activities. These fell
into two categories:
> organised groups run by adults on a regular basis and often focused on a specifi c
activity
> spontaneous activities that the young people engaged in with their families and
friends.
The activities we uncovered largely match those identifi ed by the survey response
to the Youth Matters consultation (DfES, 2006). Our qualitative approach allowed us
to extend our understanding of the wider benefi ts of learning from these activities
(Brynner and Feinstein, 2006).
The rich seam of spontaneous activities was particularly noteworthy. Inevitably the
young people spent a considerable amount of time with their friends and families.
While time spent with family and friends was clearly fulfi lling and, in most cases,
formative and instructive, this was not the focus of the study. Our focus was the
possible added value conferred by educational relationships that are beyond the
everyday experiences of school and home. We see this as a specifi c, valuable (and
possibly neglected) strand of educational experiences.
The main impetus for young people for joining in any organised out-of-school activity
was social. The social advantages of wider networks were frequently stressed and
seemed to be a positive infl uence on young people. The main reason for continued
commitment was enjoyment of the activities themselves. However, in most cases
parental support was also needed for continued membership.
What did the young people learn?
An analysis of the learning that took place within these organised activities revealed
the value and richness of the participation and highlighted what was denied to
those young people unable to take part. Two striking aspects of the young people’s
engagement with these out-of-school activities were, fi rst, the ways in which they
were making genuine contributions to the activities through the responsibilities
that they undertook, and second, their level of understanding and articulation of
what they had learnt. From the interviews it was possible to see development of
specialist vocabulary and skills and the evaluation and reward of these through local
and national frames of assessment. Many activities had become such signifi cant
life experiences for the young people that they linked them to their future career
aspirations.
Further analysis provided insights into the differences in the ways young people
behaved in out-of-school activities and in the classroom. As the young people
discussed their attitudes towards the management of behaviour, it became apparent
that strict discipline was applied and maintained within many of these out-of-school
settings. This was generally accepted without complaint and clearly differentiated
from behaviour management strategies in school.
The importance of educational relationships
The relationships with the adults involved in the activity were a strong factor in
continued participation. We identifi ed two main roles for these adults:
> Supervisory – there was a distinction between single-activity out-of-school clubs
and the less focused (but still organised) clubs and groups where the adult
involvement is not ‘teaching’ but limited to a more peripheral, mainly supervisory
role.
> Role models – in the single-activity out-of-school clubs the adults were a key
element of the young people’s involvement. They were seen as role models and
the young people aspired to the particular profi ciencies which they attributed to
these leaders. The adults contributed their expertise to the activity as opposed to
their ‘adultness’, and they were often perceived as fellow learners.
Whatever role the adult played in the activity, the relationship was always perceived
as being very different from that with teachers in school, even when it was the
same adult (e.g. teachers taking drama or sports clubs). Although the adults in the
clubs could be strict and demanding they were much more likely to be described as
friends and the predominant word used was ‘fun’ in relation to both the adults and
the activities. Power was more evenly distributed as the young people saw the adult
involvement, as well as their own, as voluntary. The adults were there because they
wanted to share their own enthusiasm for the activity and not because they had a
separate agenda to impose.
The conclusion we drew from these results was that these young people
conceptualised the role of adults in the out-of-school activities and the role of adults
as teachers in school in very different ways. Teachers in classrooms tended to be
perceived as part of the system rather than as part of the activity itself. The adults
in the out-of-school activities were perceived as co-learners and an integral part of
the activity. This extended understanding of the role of adults in learning changed
young people’s perceptions of the task and character of teachers. Where out-of-
school learning had impacted on learning in school it was because young people’s
relationship with teachers had been changed to a more equal interaction. The young
people now saw themselves as active participants rather than as passive recipients
of the curriculum.
Impact of poverty
The diversity and number of spontaneous activities reported was similar for
both the free school meal and the more affl uent groups but the list of organised
activities revealed substantive differences between the type and quality of activities
experienced. Of the 30 more affl uent young people only six were not attending
organised activities after school. For the young people on free school meals the
numbers were considerably higher: 11 out of the 25 young people were not attending
some organised after-school provision.
The data were further analysed by age, gender and location. While there were
differences when considering age and location, there appeared to be very little
gender difference.
In Year 6 there was a marked difference between the types of activities taken up by
young people. While the more affl uent young people were engaged in a variety of
activities on the school site and beyond, the young people on free school meals were
generally more reliant on school provision. In Year 9 the distinction between the two
groups was starker. The more affl uent young people were taking part in a rich and
varied range of organised activities, but this was much more limited for the young
people on free school meals.
More importantly, living in a rural location appeared to have a strong effect on uptake
of out-of-school activities. Young people in poverty and living in rural locations were
doubly disadvantaged. Only fi ve out of the 13 young people on free school meals in
rural locations took part in some form of out-of-school activity. This compared to nine
out of the 12 young people on free school meals in urban locations and 15 out of the
18 more affl uent rural young people. The problems of the rural young people on free
school meals mirrored those of other young people on free school meals but were
exacerbated by fewer options and distance.
Reasons for non-attendance
The factors for non-attendance often overlapped and intensifi ed each other. They
formed a complex constellation of disadvantages which inhibited young people’s
opportunities and appetites for organised out-of-school experiences.
A key element was the availability, or perception of availability, of organised activities
in the young people’s schools and neighbourhoods. This was a complex issue linked
to access and cost and the young people’s perceptions of what was possible.
Transport was a key concern, affecting the young people’s capacity to do things that
their friends were doing. Some competitive activities required parents to take their
children to matches further afi eld. This was particularly problematic for families where
personal transport is restricted and therefore reciprocity between families is not
possible.
Organised activities often involved extra costs such as entrance fees and equipment.
Involvement in family life and practices appeared to take additional time and
commitment for the young people on free school meals. Many of these young people
were living in complex and re-formed families, and time was spent with non-resident
fathers and stepfamilies.
Where there were no affordable organised activities for the young people they
were generally frustrated and disappointed. The lack of opportunities fuelled their
perception of themselves as non-attendees. The young people on free school meals
frequently claimed they did not want to engage in the same way as others although
they were keen to talk about more spontaneous activities that they had chosen to do.
Sunday, February 10, 2013
Education Outside School
This is going to be a positive magazine that focuses on the whys and the hows of home education. You’ll nd stories of other families’ home ed journeys and have a chance to meet different educational approaches. We’ll also feature things for you to do with your children, from quick activities to longer projects, designed to be used as they stand or modifed to suit you. EOS isn’t affliated to any home education groups or organisations to remain truly independent, and it won’t feature big discussions on politics. But we won’t have our heads in the clouds either. When there is news that we feel will be of interest to our readers we’ll report it, as far as is possible within our publication dates and lead times.
We home educators are a diverse bunch; often interested to hear how someone else does it, and always on the look out for ideas of things to do, books to read, websites to visit. Whether you just want to recommend something or have an article you’d like to write, we’d love to hear from you.
The middle pages will be a pull out section just for the children.
It will include some quizzes, craft ideas, website suggestions, book reviews and a competition! We’ll try to cover all ages, and we are particularly keen to hear from any of your smaller people who’d like to tell us what they’d like to see there. Meanwhile enjoy the recipes and games we’ve put in there for this first issue!
Questions. They just come with the territory when you home educate! We’ve all been there,
from the family gatherings when you’ve been gearing yourself up to tell everyone that you’re
taking your children out of school, or that you won’t be sending them in the first place, through to
those ‘at-the-supermarket-checkout’ moments when you find yourself so interrogated you’re looking
around for the Mastermind black chair!
These questions are sometimes born of disbelief and horror that you could even consider such a
strange idea, occasionally they are honestly curious and interested, but almost always demonstrate
that the questioner has pretty much no comprehension of what home education is, is entrenched in
a system and believes that this system must be ‘the right way’.
We’d like to feature those common questions to find out how you answer them! What do you say?
Does it depend on the questioner, or their attitude? Does it depend on why you chose to home
educate in the first place? Does it depend on how long you’ve been home educating? Have you
answered these questions so many times that you have a quick one-liner all prepared! The first
question we’d like answered is that old stalwart:
‘But what about socialisation?’
We want to hear from you! Write in and tell us what you say
to people that ask you. If you’re new to home ed, we’re sure
you’ll appreciate some tips on how to retort.
And tell us what are the other questions that crop up
with predictable regularity and we’ll feature them in future
issues.
Saturday, February 9, 2013
OBSTACLES AND SUPPORT IN COMMUNITY-BASED ISLAMIC EDUCATION
As the new concepts introduced, the concept of
This community-based education, though has a historical basis,
but in practice still beat! barriers next-mi
endorsement.
1. BARRIERS
Barriers raised by school-based
this society there are at least three things.
First, education in general has been used to
assistance from the government. Various issues that arise in
such as the lack of funding for education, the building where
ongoing education, teaching and learning tools, procurement
teachers, recognition of diplomas, field jobs for graduatesit produces, usually spilled to the government. Initiative,
creativity that can produce a variety of needs for penyeleng-
citizenship education has not grown evenly from the community. In other words, the education providers in
generally are used to be pampered, as a result of handling
education in the New Order period centered on the government.
Second, the economy in general is below the line
poverty, as a result of difficult jobs, can not afford
compete, and the lack of ability to cool place-erbaiki economy.
In such circumstances, very difficult to expect the participation
economic community in support of the concept-based education
society.
Third, in general the lack of education
willingness, ability, skills and strategies in tapping funds
of society. This is as a result of a lack of experience and
lack the ability to work with people who
have the capital or the parties of the pen-gambil policy
education. They say less have the ability
explore funding both from within and from outside.
2. SUPPORT
In addition to the constraints mentioned above,
there are also factors that can facilitate the implementation support
the concept of community-based education. Such support, most
There is also lack of the following three.
First, the religious spirit. Indonesian society
Muslims generally, believed that every person who
have the knowledge required to teach to others,
even though it was just a little knowledge. They are motivated by tradition
Prophet. which means: "Every man of learning, but not
apply their knowledge, then he will be put in hell before
pagan people ". In addition, they also believe that
support activities in the field of education, the reward equal to
berjidah in the way of Allah.
Second, that of the twenty million people of Indonesia
Muslims, many who considered capable and sufficient
with a wide variety of skills and professions. Among them
There are classified as the entrepre-neurs are successful, officials
government has a high strategic position, scholars
respected, a famous lawyer, the chairman or members of parliament,
doctors, lawyers, artists and so on. They have facilities
exceeding their needs such as houses, land, vehicles, plant,
companies, educational institutions, and so on. The state of the Islamic Ummah
Such is the force that if harnessed and integrated into the world of education, will be able to help
memperlancarkan implementation of the concept of community-based education
them. Many of those who have plunged into the world
education, and education is supported by those
it turned out quite well and produce graduates who excel.
Third, among the Muslims themselves are now widely
Successful education independently with outcome
to be proud of. Many private Islamic schools
enough has kredibi-litas and markatabel. Such situation
it can be supporting the implementation of the concept-based education
people, when they want to help institutions
Other private Islamic education has not advanced.
If the factors supporting the didayaguna can be
optimal and effective, the various obstacles as mentioned in
above, by itself can Diata-si. The issue is whether there is live
willingness, sincerity, hard work and togetherness among the people
and Indonesia itself.
This community-based education, though has a historical basis,
but in practice still beat! barriers next-mi
endorsement.
1. BARRIERS
Barriers raised by school-based
this society there are at least three things.
First, education in general has been used to
assistance from the government. Various issues that arise in
such as the lack of funding for education, the building where
ongoing education, teaching and learning tools, procurement
teachers, recognition of diplomas, field jobs for graduatesit produces, usually spilled to the government. Initiative,
creativity that can produce a variety of needs for penyeleng-
citizenship education has not grown evenly from the community. In other words, the education providers in
generally are used to be pampered, as a result of handling
education in the New Order period centered on the government.
Second, the economy in general is below the line
poverty, as a result of difficult jobs, can not afford
compete, and the lack of ability to cool place-erbaiki economy.
In such circumstances, very difficult to expect the participation
economic community in support of the concept-based education
society.
Third, in general the lack of education
willingness, ability, skills and strategies in tapping funds
of society. This is as a result of a lack of experience and
lack the ability to work with people who
have the capital or the parties of the pen-gambil policy
education. They say less have the ability
explore funding both from within and from outside.
2. SUPPORT
In addition to the constraints mentioned above,
there are also factors that can facilitate the implementation support
the concept of community-based education. Such support, most
There is also lack of the following three.
First, the religious spirit. Indonesian society
Muslims generally, believed that every person who
have the knowledge required to teach to others,
even though it was just a little knowledge. They are motivated by tradition
Prophet. which means: "Every man of learning, but not
apply their knowledge, then he will be put in hell before
pagan people ". In addition, they also believe that
support activities in the field of education, the reward equal to
berjidah in the way of Allah.
Second, that of the twenty million people of Indonesia
Muslims, many who considered capable and sufficient
with a wide variety of skills and professions. Among them
There are classified as the entrepre-neurs are successful, officials
government has a high strategic position, scholars
respected, a famous lawyer, the chairman or members of parliament,
doctors, lawyers, artists and so on. They have facilities
exceeding their needs such as houses, land, vehicles, plant,
companies, educational institutions, and so on. The state of the Islamic Ummah
Such is the force that if harnessed and integrated into the world of education, will be able to help
memperlancarkan implementation of the concept of community-based education
them. Many of those who have plunged into the world
education, and education is supported by those
it turned out quite well and produce graduates who excel.
Third, among the Muslims themselves are now widely
Successful education independently with outcome
to be proud of. Many private Islamic schools
enough has kredibi-litas and markatabel. Such situation
it can be supporting the implementation of the concept-based education
people, when they want to help institutions
Other private Islamic education has not advanced.
If the factors supporting the didayaguna can be
optimal and effective, the various obstacles as mentioned in
above, by itself can Diata-si. The issue is whether there is live
willingness, sincerity, hard work and togetherness among the people
and Indonesia itself.
COMMUNITY CONTRIBUTIONS TO EDUCATION
Historical development of science begins with many
observation of human activities on natural events. Nation
Babylonian Mesopotamia who lived in the area as a bright region,rarely cloudy, night stars and planets visible
have pushed birth of astronomy, which is now the subject in schools.
In ancient Egypt in 3200 BC, a region
prone to flooding from the Nile each year has removed the boundaries
land made people, thus encouraging the growth of the science of geometry
and the mathematical one of them as a tool to measure the soil.
In Greek society known as traders and sailorswho like to explore the ocean while trade has encouraged people
to contemplate so born philosophers who regard
motion of the universe such as Thales, Pythgoras, Democritus and Aristotle.
In Islamic society, the development of science
thrive in the 7th century to the 15th century AD Activity
intellectuals began in Baghdad during Harun al-Rashid (786-809 AD)
as a trade center that places community berkumpulkan
people from all over the world. They interact and
exchange ideas so rapidly evolving science.
Similarly, in this modern era, especially in Indonesia, many
standing independent educational institutions by the bleak TPA,
Majlis Ta'lim and other discussion groups. Donations education
based society can not be ignored, because it gives a real
increase knowledge for learners. Islamic education models such as
This needs to be developed so as to reach the
wider society and produce scientists who
expert preformance art. It is very possible because, the motion
dynamism and creativity wide open public education.
observation of human activities on natural events. Nation
Babylonian Mesopotamia who lived in the area as a bright region,rarely cloudy, night stars and planets visible
have pushed birth of astronomy, which is now the subject in schools.
In ancient Egypt in 3200 BC, a region
prone to flooding from the Nile each year has removed the boundaries
land made people, thus encouraging the growth of the science of geometry
and the mathematical one of them as a tool to measure the soil.
In Greek society known as traders and sailorswho like to explore the ocean while trade has encouraged people
to contemplate so born philosophers who regard
motion of the universe such as Thales, Pythgoras, Democritus and Aristotle.
In Islamic society, the development of science
thrive in the 7th century to the 15th century AD Activity
intellectuals began in Baghdad during Harun al-Rashid (786-809 AD)
as a trade center that places community berkumpulkan
people from all over the world. They interact and
exchange ideas so rapidly evolving science.
Similarly, in this modern era, especially in Indonesia, many
standing independent educational institutions by the bleak TPA,
Majlis Ta'lim and other discussion groups. Donations education
based society can not be ignored, because it gives a real
increase knowledge for learners. Islamic education models such as
This needs to be developed so as to reach the
wider society and produce scientists who
expert preformance art. It is very possible because, the motion
dynamism and creativity wide open public education.
LEARNING IN THE CONTEXT OF THE COMMUNITY
Basically, the study has the aim that the learner can
improve their quality of life as God's creatures both individuals
and social. As an individual one can expect
enhance creative and innovative in the face of all
challenges ahead. Under no circumstances and wherever
continue to exist as an individual personality. Learning is a stock
important for an individual to be able to accomplish the above.
As social beings, learners must be able to establish relationships
harmony that can complement each other for any shortcomings
There on one side. This understanding needs to be deepened and
expanded in studies of religious sciences. Life communities
become familiar and terhayati the life of every human being
sharpening one another, compassion and care.
Therefore, any educational institution in addition to equip
graduates with a mastery of the field of study also provides
understanding of the relationship between the material and the real world are growing
in the community. Thus, the learning, both formal and
Informal expected to provide an experience for participants
as in the recommendations of UNESCO, 1996, learning to know, learning
to do, learning to be, learning to live together.
In Islamic education, the implementation based education
society, is nothing new. Islamic history has recorded, that
the call of faith which requires that every person knowledgeable
apply their knowledge this has encouraged community-siatif
to organize educational activities through institutions
education is very varied. Ahmad Syalabi mentioned institutions
educational institutions were as follows: al-Kuttab, al-Qasr, al-Hawânit
Waraqi'în, Manazil al-Ulama, al-Badiyah, and Madra-legitimate. (Ahmad Syalabi,
1987: 43). Hasan Abd 'Al who did special research about his
Islamic educational institutions of the fourth century AH, mentioned that
Islamic educational institutions include Kuttab century, al-Masjid, Hawânit al-
Waraqi'în, Manazil al-Ulama 'al-Salûn al-Adabiyah, Dur Dur al-Kutub wa
al-'Ilm and al-Madrasah (Hasan' Abu al-'Al, 1978: 219).Furthermore Manazil al-'Ulama which literally means homeresidence of the clergy, is also used as a place-sungnya berlangeducational activities using sorogan system, ie astudents one by one facing clerics / scholars to read the bookbeing studies. Long before it was known in Islamic historyplaces of education has the form of the Dar al-Arqam, the al-Aqram,the place where the first ma-ma times Rasulullah act As with teachers, mem-provide Islamic education for his companions.
As for al-Badiyah literally means desert, the village wherestay Badawi. In the Arabic language institute studied and preservedauthenticity. They still maintain fluencyArabs to maintain the rules of the language. Thus, theBadiyah-Badiyah this was the source of Arabic language teachinggenuine and pure.
The other place that allows people to learn isBook stores. The owner of the book store, are not the peoplesolely for profit and profit, but mostthey are intelligent writer-poet, who has chosenbook trading business, so they have a chances good to read and menela'ah and hang out with thescholars and poets-poets. They also copy booksimportant and handed it to those who need itto be rewarded.
In addition, education is also done by people in the Majlis orliterary salon, which is a special majlis held by the Deputyto discuss the various kinds of knowledge. In a literary majlis, not just discussed and discussed issuesliterature, but also a wide range of science(Science assemblies) and the various arts (art majlis).
Furthermore, the public is also used as a Hospitala place to learn. The hospital not only serves as aspot treat and cure the sick, but also to educateforces that relate to nursing and medicine.They conduct various researches and experiments in the fieldmedicine and drugs, so that the developing medical scienceand science of medicine or pharmacy. The hospital is also the rightpracticum of medical school places established outside the homesick. Not infrequently, medical schools were establishednot separate from the hospital. Thus, hospitals inIslamic world, it also serves as an educational institution.
Religious education is another al-Qasr (The Palace), which is specifically used to educate the children of the officials are. This dila-
kukan based on the idea that education has the it should be
prepare students to be able to carry out his duties later
as an adult. Children's education is different from education in the palace
kuttab children in general. In the palace of the parents (the
magnifying palace) is a consistent lesson plan
with intelligence and her talent as well as the desired destination
by his parents. Teachers who teach in the palace called mu'addib
(Educators) whose primary task other than inherited intelligence and
knowledge-knowledge of the ancients to kids officials also
educate them to have a noble character.
Furthermore, al-Maktabat (library) is also used by
community as a venue for educational activities. The
clerics and scholars from a wide range of expertise, in general
wrote books in their respective fields and further to
taught or delivered to the prosecutor science when they
come to the palace. Even clerics and scholars presenting
opportunity for prosecutors to study in library science
their personal.
The existence of institutions that are very varied
clearly proves that long ago, the govern-intah and
community in the broadest sense has been participating actively in
organize educational activities. Government and society
really have to build cooperation synergies compact in
promote educational activities. The principles of education for all
(Education for all), lifelong education (life long education),
democratic education characterized by the program
tailored to the abilities and desires of the community, and the
autonomy for public education.
Involvement, participation and community participation in the mela-
kukan education can also be found in Islamic society
Indonesia. Long before the government established schools or madrassas
formal as encountered today, Muslims in Indonesia
already have Surau, Meunasah, Rangkang, Break, Mushalla, Assembly
Study groups, mosques and pesantren. Institutions such as health-
luruhan built on the will and consciousness of society
themselves, and are used in addition to religious activities and social events
also for religious education activities (Abuddin Nata (ed.), 2001:
6-100). Of educational institutions has generated
sejum was the great scholars like Prof. Dr. Hamka, K.H. Abdullah Ahmad,
Sa'aduddin Jambek, Mahmud Yunus, KH. Hashim Ash'ari, KH. Imam Zarkasyi and much more. They are the scholars who have
depth of religious knowledge, keluasaan insights and experiences, and
a winning personality, so as to appear as a leader
people.
This is the evidence that the public was already able
establish and administer educational institutions independently with
graduates who excel. Through the concept of society-based education
as described above, in addition to government tannya keliha-likeshare the duties and responsibilities in managing education to
society, also want to grow the confidence and
creative society in managing education. In other words
the concept of community-based education is essentially
return to the concept of education ever undertaken by
community itself. In this way, creativity, innovation, ideas,
justice and democracy education by itself will grow in
society. In the middle of a situation where the government's ability
very limited, the concept of community-based education is
alternatives that need to be supported.
In the standards for science teacher preparation by the 1998 NSTAcooperation with the Association for the Education of Teachers in science,
stated that one of the aspects that must be considered by the teacher
is a social context (Anna Poedjiadi, 2005: 98.). Teachers should be
identify and use learning resources outside
school (schooling). Contextual learning is expected to
increase the motivation of learners, parents, and community participation
in the particular school.
Indonesia, in 2002 through the Ministry of Education
Sets a new national approach to learning CTL (contextual
teaching and learning) for learning a link between
material with real-world situations and encourage students to apply
in their lives as individuals, family members, community
and the nation. Results CTL can improve academic achievement through
understanding of the meaning of the subject matter learned by associating
in the context of everyday life.
improve their quality of life as God's creatures both individuals
and social. As an individual one can expect
enhance creative and innovative in the face of all
challenges ahead. Under no circumstances and wherever
continue to exist as an individual personality. Learning is a stock
important for an individual to be able to accomplish the above.
As social beings, learners must be able to establish relationships
harmony that can complement each other for any shortcomings
There on one side. This understanding needs to be deepened and
expanded in studies of religious sciences. Life communities
become familiar and terhayati the life of every human being
sharpening one another, compassion and care.
Therefore, any educational institution in addition to equip
graduates with a mastery of the field of study also provides
understanding of the relationship between the material and the real world are growing
in the community. Thus, the learning, both formal and
Informal expected to provide an experience for participants
as in the recommendations of UNESCO, 1996, learning to know, learning
to do, learning to be, learning to live together.
In Islamic education, the implementation based education
society, is nothing new. Islamic history has recorded, that
the call of faith which requires that every person knowledgeable
apply their knowledge this has encouraged community-siatif
to organize educational activities through institutions
education is very varied. Ahmad Syalabi mentioned institutions
educational institutions were as follows: al-Kuttab, al-Qasr, al-Hawânit
Waraqi'în, Manazil al-Ulama, al-Badiyah, and Madra-legitimate. (Ahmad Syalabi,
1987: 43). Hasan Abd 'Al who did special research about his
Islamic educational institutions of the fourth century AH, mentioned that
Islamic educational institutions include Kuttab century, al-Masjid, Hawânit al-
Waraqi'în, Manazil al-Ulama 'al-Salûn al-Adabiyah, Dur Dur al-Kutub wa
al-'Ilm and al-Madrasah (Hasan' Abu al-'Al, 1978: 219).Furthermore Manazil al-'Ulama which literally means homeresidence of the clergy, is also used as a place-sungnya berlangeducational activities using sorogan system, ie astudents one by one facing clerics / scholars to read the bookbeing studies. Long before it was known in Islamic historyplaces of education has the form of the Dar al-Arqam, the al-Aqram,the place where the first ma-ma times Rasulullah act As with teachers, mem-provide Islamic education for his companions.
As for al-Badiyah literally means desert, the village wherestay Badawi. In the Arabic language institute studied and preservedauthenticity. They still maintain fluencyArabs to maintain the rules of the language. Thus, theBadiyah-Badiyah this was the source of Arabic language teachinggenuine and pure.
The other place that allows people to learn isBook stores. The owner of the book store, are not the peoplesolely for profit and profit, but mostthey are intelligent writer-poet, who has chosenbook trading business, so they have a chances good to read and menela'ah and hang out with thescholars and poets-poets. They also copy booksimportant and handed it to those who need itto be rewarded.
In addition, education is also done by people in the Majlis orliterary salon, which is a special majlis held by the Deputyto discuss the various kinds of knowledge. In a literary majlis, not just discussed and discussed issuesliterature, but also a wide range of science(Science assemblies) and the various arts (art majlis).
Furthermore, the public is also used as a Hospitala place to learn. The hospital not only serves as aspot treat and cure the sick, but also to educateforces that relate to nursing and medicine.They conduct various researches and experiments in the fieldmedicine and drugs, so that the developing medical scienceand science of medicine or pharmacy. The hospital is also the rightpracticum of medical school places established outside the homesick. Not infrequently, medical schools were establishednot separate from the hospital. Thus, hospitals inIslamic world, it also serves as an educational institution.
Religious education is another al-Qasr (The Palace), which is specifically used to educate the children of the officials are. This dila-
kukan based on the idea that education has the it should be
prepare students to be able to carry out his duties later
as an adult. Children's education is different from education in the palace
kuttab children in general. In the palace of the parents (the
magnifying palace) is a consistent lesson plan
with intelligence and her talent as well as the desired destination
by his parents. Teachers who teach in the palace called mu'addib
(Educators) whose primary task other than inherited intelligence and
knowledge-knowledge of the ancients to kids officials also
educate them to have a noble character.
Furthermore, al-Maktabat (library) is also used by
community as a venue for educational activities. The
clerics and scholars from a wide range of expertise, in general
wrote books in their respective fields and further to
taught or delivered to the prosecutor science when they
come to the palace. Even clerics and scholars presenting
opportunity for prosecutors to study in library science
their personal.
The existence of institutions that are very varied
clearly proves that long ago, the govern-intah and
community in the broadest sense has been participating actively in
organize educational activities. Government and society
really have to build cooperation synergies compact in
promote educational activities. The principles of education for all
(Education for all), lifelong education (life long education),
democratic education characterized by the program
tailored to the abilities and desires of the community, and the
autonomy for public education.
Involvement, participation and community participation in the mela-
kukan education can also be found in Islamic society
Indonesia. Long before the government established schools or madrassas
formal as encountered today, Muslims in Indonesia
already have Surau, Meunasah, Rangkang, Break, Mushalla, Assembly
Study groups, mosques and pesantren. Institutions such as health-
luruhan built on the will and consciousness of society
themselves, and are used in addition to religious activities and social events
also for religious education activities (Abuddin Nata (ed.), 2001:
6-100). Of educational institutions has generated
sejum was the great scholars like Prof. Dr. Hamka, K.H. Abdullah Ahmad,
Sa'aduddin Jambek, Mahmud Yunus, KH. Hashim Ash'ari, KH. Imam Zarkasyi and much more. They are the scholars who have
depth of religious knowledge, keluasaan insights and experiences, and
a winning personality, so as to appear as a leader
people.
This is the evidence that the public was already able
establish and administer educational institutions independently with
graduates who excel. Through the concept of society-based education
as described above, in addition to government tannya keliha-likeshare the duties and responsibilities in managing education to
society, also want to grow the confidence and
creative society in managing education. In other words
the concept of community-based education is essentially
return to the concept of education ever undertaken by
community itself. In this way, creativity, innovation, ideas,
justice and democracy education by itself will grow in
society. In the middle of a situation where the government's ability
very limited, the concept of community-based education is
alternatives that need to be supported.
In the standards for science teacher preparation by the 1998 NSTAcooperation with the Association for the Education of Teachers in science,
stated that one of the aspects that must be considered by the teacher
is a social context (Anna Poedjiadi, 2005: 98.). Teachers should be
identify and use learning resources outside
school (schooling). Contextual learning is expected to
increase the motivation of learners, parents, and community participation
in the particular school.
Indonesia, in 2002 through the Ministry of Education
Sets a new national approach to learning CTL (contextual
teaching and learning) for learning a link between
material with real-world situations and encourage students to apply
in their lives as individuals, family members, community
and the nation. Results CTL can improve academic achievement through
understanding of the meaning of the subject matter learned by associating
in the context of everyday life.
EDUCATION AND PUBLIC RELATIONS
Today nearly every activity of life people have alwaysassociated with educational values. Since waking up in the morning untilbreak back in the evening, it appears the value of education. Bytherefore, difficult to separate between education and lifesociety. It's just how the educational model that can beeducate the public towards the advancement of science andtheir civilization. Because, with the advancement of sciencedo not belong to the community which raises all sortseducation that does not educate. Tata many people's liveswere devastating. Therefore, it should be connecting theharmonious relationship between education and society. Educational needssociety, society needs demikan versaeducation.In law no. 20 of 2003 on the education system
mentioned that a national community-based education is
providing education based on the uniqueness of religious, social,
culture, aspirations and potential of people as the embodiment of education
of and by the people (UUSISDIKNAS, 2003: 5). In a study
community-based education can be understood as a
alternate to participate solving educational problems
who handled the government, by way of involving the
society more broadly. Communities involved to understand
programs conducted education in order
they are motivated to provide the maximum assistance
the implementation of educational programs. Help
referred to as the people are motivated to enter
their children to school or madrassa, member-financial aid fish
(Monetary or material) without being asked to the school. The issues
faced by schools, Madra-legitimate or college can be solved
along with the community. Problems faced by institutions
education as related to student / student, teacher / lecturer,
equipment, finance and formulation of objectives of schools or
pergu high-ruan can be addressed together with the community.
Various facilities and infrastructure in the community such as field
sports hall, mosque, workshops, places of course
skills, human resources and others can be accessed
and Diman advantage of the educational institutions, without having to pay
(Religious Education Development Centre and the religious, 2001: p. 102-104).
In Act 2 of 1989 on Education System
The National Chapter I, General Provisions, Article 1, point 10 such
stated that education is a resource and support
supporting the implementation of pendid-fish manifested as power, money,
facilities and infrastructure are available and held and didaya-use
by the family, the community, the students and the government, both self-
alone or together (Law On Education System
National Law No. 2 Th. 1989, 1993: p. 3) However, because
nature and the political will that is stronger and central-istis,
the role of the community in addressing education issues
given the lack of a proportional.
Community-based education can not be separated from
view that education is essentially
an activity that is social. Various components of education,
such as vision, mission, goals, basic, curriculum, methods, teacher opened in the
tuhkan, evaluation, graduates, educational facilities should be designed according to the needs of society. In this connection, 'Ali KhalilAbu al-'Ainain stated: Education is a social process. Becausethat education in a society different from other communities,in accordance with the character of the community itself (Ali Khalil Abu al-'Ainain,1980: 51). In the words of a different, yet the same substance,M. Qura-ish Shihab said: "It was agreed by all the expertsthat education has the educational system as well as for asociety or country can not be imported or exported from or toa country or society. He must come from within the communityitself. He was the "clothing" that must be measured and stitched suitthe shape and size of its wearer, based on identity,outlook on life, and the values contained in the public orcountry (M. Quraish Shihab, 1992: 173). In line with that IbnKhaldun once said that In fact the science and teaching itis a social charity aimed specifically at men, becauseindeed they are in the lives of human civilization,that primitive life did not materialize, (Ali Al-Jumbulati, 1994:218; Langgulung Hasan, 1985: 27).
Community-based education is also in line with the viewsabout basic Islamic education. Experts agree Islam pendid-fish,that in addition, based on al-Quran and al-Hadith Islamic educationalso oriented society like any other education.Therefore, people are also the basis for the formation of conceptsconcept of Islamic education and implementation. In this regardMuhammad Jamil Khayyat said: "Verily, education,in the Islamic understanding, it is not something separateof society, even the subjects and their implementation foreverconsidering the public. This is part of the processgiving and receiving (Muhammad Jamil Khayyat, 1986: 136).
Based on the description, the community-based educationersebut the point is that education should be manageddemocratic by involving all components of the nation, namelygovernment, schools and the community in the broadest senseincluding industrial society, businessmen, lawyers, doctors,bureaucrats, bankers, and so on, on the basis of moral responsibilityand calls intention solely for Allah. With a basic responsibilityresponsibility and such intention, then the implementation of the concept of educationcommunity based on its own will be done.Implementation of this concept can be considered as a breakthrough weeks to changestate of society, who had only waited pitied,rather than changing kedaannya own. They must have the courage to change the attitude (mental hijrah) and sacrifice (jihad) for the education of the sons
nation, as the call of faith embedded in his soul. Case
This is in line with the words of Allah. in Surat al-Tawbah: 20, which
Meaning: Those who believe, and emigrate and strive in the way of Allah
with property and themselves, are higher rank in theGod, and that the people who got the victory.
mentioned that a national community-based education is
providing education based on the uniqueness of religious, social,
culture, aspirations and potential of people as the embodiment of education
of and by the people (UUSISDIKNAS, 2003: 5). In a study
community-based education can be understood as a
alternate to participate solving educational problems
who handled the government, by way of involving the
society more broadly. Communities involved to understand
programs conducted education in order
they are motivated to provide the maximum assistance
the implementation of educational programs. Help
referred to as the people are motivated to enter
their children to school or madrassa, member-financial aid fish
(Monetary or material) without being asked to the school. The issues
faced by schools, Madra-legitimate or college can be solved
along with the community. Problems faced by institutions
education as related to student / student, teacher / lecturer,
equipment, finance and formulation of objectives of schools or
pergu high-ruan can be addressed together with the community.
Various facilities and infrastructure in the community such as field
sports hall, mosque, workshops, places of course
skills, human resources and others can be accessed
and Diman advantage of the educational institutions, without having to pay
(Religious Education Development Centre and the religious, 2001: p. 102-104).
In Act 2 of 1989 on Education System
The National Chapter I, General Provisions, Article 1, point 10 such
stated that education is a resource and support
supporting the implementation of pendid-fish manifested as power, money,
facilities and infrastructure are available and held and didaya-use
by the family, the community, the students and the government, both self-
alone or together (Law On Education System
National Law No. 2 Th. 1989, 1993: p. 3) However, because
nature and the political will that is stronger and central-istis,
the role of the community in addressing education issues
given the lack of a proportional.
Community-based education can not be separated from
view that education is essentially
an activity that is social. Various components of education,
such as vision, mission, goals, basic, curriculum, methods, teacher opened in the
tuhkan, evaluation, graduates, educational facilities should be designed according to the needs of society. In this connection, 'Ali KhalilAbu al-'Ainain stated: Education is a social process. Becausethat education in a society different from other communities,in accordance with the character of the community itself (Ali Khalil Abu al-'Ainain,1980: 51). In the words of a different, yet the same substance,M. Qura-ish Shihab said: "It was agreed by all the expertsthat education has the educational system as well as for asociety or country can not be imported or exported from or toa country or society. He must come from within the communityitself. He was the "clothing" that must be measured and stitched suitthe shape and size of its wearer, based on identity,outlook on life, and the values contained in the public orcountry (M. Quraish Shihab, 1992: 173). In line with that IbnKhaldun once said that In fact the science and teaching itis a social charity aimed specifically at men, becauseindeed they are in the lives of human civilization,that primitive life did not materialize, (Ali Al-Jumbulati, 1994:218; Langgulung Hasan, 1985: 27).
Community-based education is also in line with the viewsabout basic Islamic education. Experts agree Islam pendid-fish,that in addition, based on al-Quran and al-Hadith Islamic educationalso oriented society like any other education.Therefore, people are also the basis for the formation of conceptsconcept of Islamic education and implementation. In this regardMuhammad Jamil Khayyat said: "Verily, education,in the Islamic understanding, it is not something separateof society, even the subjects and their implementation foreverconsidering the public. This is part of the processgiving and receiving (Muhammad Jamil Khayyat, 1986: 136).
Based on the description, the community-based educationersebut the point is that education should be manageddemocratic by involving all components of the nation, namelygovernment, schools and the community in the broadest senseincluding industrial society, businessmen, lawyers, doctors,bureaucrats, bankers, and so on, on the basis of moral responsibilityand calls intention solely for Allah. With a basic responsibilityresponsibility and such intention, then the implementation of the concept of educationcommunity based on its own will be done.Implementation of this concept can be considered as a breakthrough weeks to changestate of society, who had only waited pitied,rather than changing kedaannya own. They must have the courage to change the attitude (mental hijrah) and sacrifice (jihad) for the education of the sons
nation, as the call of faith embedded in his soul. Case
This is in line with the words of Allah. in Surat al-Tawbah: 20, which
Meaning: Those who believe, and emigrate and strive in the way of Allah
with property and themselves, are higher rank in theGod, and that the people who got the victory.
education and community participation
The development of science is basically aimed at
facilitate all activities of human life macro (Anna
Poedjiadi, 2005, p. 59). Human relations farther apart can be made easy with the advanced communications tools As with
The findings of the human sciences. Knowledge gained through
processes, both formal and informal education. Education
formal institutional structure that is clear and documented
properly. The informal education go naturally,
growing niche to move even partially. However, the second
form of education has a real impact in supporting
the speed of the development of science. Therefore, the idea
towards the society of knowledge will continue to roll. In
Achieve these goals, the education of the most
responsible. Therefore, education needs to pay attention
the dynamics of the community.
According Azyumardi Azra, the Indonesia since the reign of Order
New fall in May 1998 to the present, the direction of education
other materials are still in a state of uncertainty
(Azyumardi Azra, 1999: 1) reform program in total and
thorough review of the various aspects of the life of the nation and the state
This era also marks yet showing signs of success.
Various rules and the old order were deemed irrelevant
Becoming obsolete. While rules and new order as
replacements are supposed to change the situation better,also not been successfully formulated. In fact, people have looked
require partisanship in matters of education.
An effort is now underway to download gatasi
the problem is a change in the field of education. Through
Education Reform Committee chaired by Prof. Suyanto, Law
Act No.. 2 of 1989 on National Education System
(UUSPN) mengal-ami improvements, from the original 20 to 24 Chapters
Chapters, and from 59 chapters to 80 chapters. Change this UUSPN
is based on the results of the evaluation are as follows: 1) Act 2
1989 on National Education System felt yet
show partiality to the principles of Lifelong education
life, education for all, and an education system that is open
and is unable to answer the challenges of structural change
economic growth and Seba-ran the population, technological developments
Information and Komunika-si in the rapidly changing global era; 2)
Act 2 of 1989 on National Education System
have not looked at education as a powerful social institution and
berwi brought so not Able to Contribute optimally as
sector taking the lead in efforts to establish a society
Indonesia new; 3) of Act 2 of 1989 about System
Education is based on the principle of management
centralized education that does not comply with the principle of autonomy
education as a realization of the implementation of the Law
22 and No. 25 of 1999 on regional autonomy, and 4) Act
Law no. 2 Year 1989 on National Education System more
focuses on the provision of education by the government,
so that it seems to ignore the role of community-based education
as an important component of the education system of the nation-al
(Suyanto, 2001: 2)
Now, in the latest act of national education system no.
20 of 2003 section 13, explicitly mentioned that the line
formal, non-formal and informal can complement each other
and enriching. In this case, clearly the position of educational pathways
stand in a balanced and even complement each other. It is impossible to
complement each other if one of them is not empowered.
Even in article 27 UUSPN is that the informal education
recognized at the formal and non-formal education after participants
students passed the test in accordance with national education standards.
On the basis of the above issues, this paper is an effort to
search-based model of Islamic education in the community.
Islamic education is an important part of the education system
nationwide. If Islamic education can run well, then
National education would also be good as a whole. Therefore, the
relevant to the field of science that developed IAIN, need
found that the formulation of a model Islamic pendididikan notice
motion dynamics of the community.
facilitate all activities of human life macro (Anna
Poedjiadi, 2005, p. 59). Human relations farther apart can be made easy with the advanced communications tools As with
The findings of the human sciences. Knowledge gained through
processes, both formal and informal education. Education
formal institutional structure that is clear and documented
properly. The informal education go naturally,
growing niche to move even partially. However, the second
form of education has a real impact in supporting
the speed of the development of science. Therefore, the idea
towards the society of knowledge will continue to roll. In
Achieve these goals, the education of the most
responsible. Therefore, education needs to pay attention
the dynamics of the community.
According Azyumardi Azra, the Indonesia since the reign of Order
New fall in May 1998 to the present, the direction of education
other materials are still in a state of uncertainty
(Azyumardi Azra, 1999: 1) reform program in total and
thorough review of the various aspects of the life of the nation and the state
This era also marks yet showing signs of success.
Various rules and the old order were deemed irrelevant
Becoming obsolete. While rules and new order as
replacements are supposed to change the situation better,also not been successfully formulated. In fact, people have looked
require partisanship in matters of education.
An effort is now underway to download gatasi
the problem is a change in the field of education. Through
Education Reform Committee chaired by Prof. Suyanto, Law
Act No.. 2 of 1989 on National Education System
(UUSPN) mengal-ami improvements, from the original 20 to 24 Chapters
Chapters, and from 59 chapters to 80 chapters. Change this UUSPN
is based on the results of the evaluation are as follows: 1) Act 2
1989 on National Education System felt yet
show partiality to the principles of Lifelong education
life, education for all, and an education system that is open
and is unable to answer the challenges of structural change
economic growth and Seba-ran the population, technological developments
Information and Komunika-si in the rapidly changing global era; 2)
Act 2 of 1989 on National Education System
have not looked at education as a powerful social institution and
berwi brought so not Able to Contribute optimally as
sector taking the lead in efforts to establish a society
Indonesia new; 3) of Act 2 of 1989 about System
Education is based on the principle of management
centralized education that does not comply with the principle of autonomy
education as a realization of the implementation of the Law
22 and No. 25 of 1999 on regional autonomy, and 4) Act
Law no. 2 Year 1989 on National Education System more
focuses on the provision of education by the government,
so that it seems to ignore the role of community-based education
as an important component of the education system of the nation-al
(Suyanto, 2001: 2)
Now, in the latest act of national education system no.
20 of 2003 section 13, explicitly mentioned that the line
formal, non-formal and informal can complement each other
and enriching. In this case, clearly the position of educational pathways
stand in a balanced and even complement each other. It is impossible to
complement each other if one of them is not empowered.
Even in article 27 UUSPN is that the informal education
recognized at the formal and non-formal education after participants
students passed the test in accordance with national education standards.
On the basis of the above issues, this paper is an effort to
search-based model of Islamic education in the community.
Islamic education is an important part of the education system
nationwide. If Islamic education can run well, then
National education would also be good as a whole. Therefore, the
relevant to the field of science that developed IAIN, need
found that the formulation of a model Islamic pendididikan notice
motion dynamics of the community.
COMMUNITY BASED ISLAMIC EDUCATION
Education that developed in the modern era has basically target
on community development. However, in reality it
communities lack the appropriate place as a subject
plays an important role in any educational kebiajakan. Moreover, the
many have simply made the object of facts and tools to merauk
profit. In fact, public donations so clear and real
in support of the efforts of its overall development objectives.
On that basis, the models need to be developed based education
the community. This educational model that would reunite
between formal education institutions with real life
people informally. Thus, formal education and
Informal is not just a story, but a reality of the piece. case
This in turn will give birth to the life of a learning community
civilized.
on community development. However, in reality it
communities lack the appropriate place as a subject
plays an important role in any educational kebiajakan. Moreover, the
many have simply made the object of facts and tools to merauk
profit. In fact, public donations so clear and real
in support of the efforts of its overall development objectives.
On that basis, the models need to be developed based education
the community. This educational model that would reunite
between formal education institutions with real life
people informally. Thus, formal education and
Informal is not just a story, but a reality of the piece. case
This in turn will give birth to the life of a learning community
civilized.
Friday, February 8, 2013
Learning Theory and Teaching History
Just as the demographics of the student population in our schools and the range of historical research have changed, so too should our notions about effective learning of content. There are innovative programs and individuals at the secondary and university levels that are endeavoring to integrate the new history with the latest learning theories.
From learning theorists such as John DeweyApril 30, 2007anks and Geneva Gay who write about history teachers in the secondary schools, the idea of involving learners in the process (of "doing history") has been a constant. Inquiry learning, advocated by Edwin Fenton in the late 1960s and early 1970s—from which so much of what is being done today in history education has evolved—has been reinforced by James Banks and others in the 1990s. For many years, theorist Jerome Bruner has advocated inquiry as a strong method of engaging students in learning. Students are encouraged to go "beyond the information given" and to ask their own questions and construct their own understanding. Tom Holt, in his essay, Thinking Historically, advocates the integration of thinking skills into the teaching of history, and not developed as a separate skill.The National History Standards of 1994 and 1996, which continue to be highly influential in history education, include a section called "Standards in Historical Thinking" that defines how historical thinking is best applied to teaching. The History Teacher published special issues about the original and the revised versions of the standards in 1995 and 1997, including comments by practicing teachers The Teaching Innovations column of the AHA newsmagazine, Perspectives, devoted considerable space to the standards as well, offering theoretical discussion of the value of involving students in their own learning and examples of methods tried with high school, community college, and university students. Finally, the 1994 report of the National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) on historical knowledge of students in grades 4–12 proposed a thematic approach to history teaching using sets of questions.
Some programs are under way that illustrate this trend. Research in the area of second-language learning and learners suggests a method that combines reading, writing, and analysis skills with content to accomplish the "outcome goals" (what students know and what they are able to do) of the new standards found in many states. The large numbers of immigrant children entering our schools in recent decades have called attention to questions about learning that had traditionally been addressed differently with English-speaking students. Because school personnel today generally place newly admitted students in classes based on age rather than English ability, limited English proficiency (LEP) students are often placed in secondary-school classes, where they must acquire both language ability and content knowledge in order to pass proficiency tests in history or government. Teaching LEP students to succeed in this academic setting involves the use of more hands-on presentation, group learning, and alternative assessment. The vocabulary and concepts so important to second-language learners are equally crucial to all history learners; the methods effective with LEP students are also found to work for all history learners. Increasing numbers of LEP students entering colleges make this information about teaching methods relevant to university teachers as well.
Innovative pedagogic methods are emerging also from the increasing computer use for research and presentation in secondary schools. Once exclusively the province of advanced placement and gifted and talented classes, computers have been routinely discovered to intrigue "regular" and special-needs students as well. Again, involving students in their own learning enhances the learning for almost all students, the only additional problem being that with computer applications, teachers often need training along with the students to become more comfortable with the possibilities for classroom use.
Research on history learning also generates opportunities for mutual discussion and experimentation by history teachers at both school and college levels. The research is not yet well connected to actual teaching practice, but the potential is significant. Researchers have examined, for example, ways in which students handle source materials, with implications for generating more rapid acquisition of relevant analytical skills. A lot of similar research is going on in Europe on this subject. The International Society of History Didactics provides a forum where educators from a great variety of countries—the United States included—and diverse academic constituencies share their work.
When all is said and done, all of the researchers who examine history learning have similar approaches: one way or another, one must involve the students. It is the "how" of this approach that often stops secondary school and college and university faculty from proceeding to make the changes they, too, believe benefit their students. Active learning is the key, but this does not have to mean that one should never lecture or never convey to students the knowledge one has gained as a historian. Rather, it means pulling the students into that process so that they learn from and with the teacher. The renewed interest among history teachers in using documents to supplement textbooks is one important response to this challenge, although the practice remains limited. A related technique that has been effective is to provide students with small parts of the story on which they can "put their own stamp." Using artifacts from an era under study has been particularly successful. Students at all levels can answer questions about "real" pieces of history (a document in its author’s original hand available from the National Archives or a local historical museum or an object such as an early coffee grinder, a mass-produced skillet, or a piece of art from Central Africa). The object introduces the time period or the theme. Students answer questions about the object’s use, its maker, or the object itself. Their answers give the teacher useful information about the students’ knowledge of the topic and provide direction for the instruction that follows. By first asking students to hypothesize about the subject they are exploring, the instructor involves them in the process of thinking historically.
Teaching in this way demands that the instructor continue to work on the craft of teaching through professional contexts. The idea of professional development originated in the public schools and has affected how schools of education work with K–12 schools. Increasingly that has led to collaboration with museums and college and university history departments.
Definition: Learning Theories
In psychology and education, learning theories are attempts to describe how people and animals learn, thereby helping us understand the inherently complex process of learning. There are three main categories (philosophical frameworks) under which learning theories fall: behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism.
1. Behaviorism
Behaviorism focuses only on the objectively observable aspects of learning and discounts the internal processing that might be associated with the activity. Learning is the acquisition of new behavior through conditioning.
There are two types of possible conditioning:
1) Classical conditioning, where the behavior becomes a reflex response to stimulus as in the case of Pavlov's Dogs.
2) Operant conditioning where there is reinforcement of the behavior by a reward or a punishment.
The theory of operant conditioning was developed by B.F. Skinner and is known as Radical Behaviorism. The word ‘operant’ refers to the way in which behavior ‘operates on the environment’. Briefly, a behavior may result either in reinforcement, which increases the likelihood of the behavior recurring, or punishment, which decreases the likelihood of the behavior recurring. It is important to note that, a punisher is not considered to be punishment if it does not result in the reduction of the behavior, and so the terms punishment and reinforcement are determined as a result of the actions. Within this framework, behaviorists are particularly interested in measurable changes in behavior.
Educational approaches such as applied behavior analysis, curriculum based measurement, and direct instruction have emerged from this model.
2. Cognitivism
Since the Cognitive Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, learning theory has undergone a great deal of change. Much of the empirical framework of Behaviorism was retained even though a new paradigm was begun. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning. Cognitivists consider how human memory works to promote learning. So for example how the natural physiological processes of encoding information into short term memory and long term memory become important to educators.
Once memory theories like the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model and Baddeley's Working memory model were established as a theoretical framework in Cognitive Psychology, new cognitive frameworks of learning began to emerge during the 1970s, 80s, and 90s. Today researchers are concentrating on topics like Cognitive load and Information Processing Theory. These theories of learning are very useful as they guide the Instructional design.
3. Constructivism
Constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts based upon current and past knowledge. In other words, "learning involves constructing one's own knowledge from one's own experiences." Constructivist learning, therefore, is a very personal endeavor, whereby internalized concepts, rules, and general principles may consequently be applied in a practical real-world context. The teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages students to discover principles for themselves and to construct knowledge by working to solve realistic problems. This is also known as knowledge construction as a social process (see social constructivism). We can work to clarify and organize their ideas so we can voice them to others. It gives us opportunities to elaborate on what they learned. We are exposed to the views of others. It enables us to discover flaws and inconsistencies by learning we can get good results. Constructivism itself has many variations, such as Active learning, discovery learning, and knowledge building. Regardless of the variety, constructivism promotes a student's free exploration within a given framework or structure.
4. Informal and post-modern theories
Informal theories of education deal with more practical breakdown of the learning process. One of these deals with whether learning should take place as a building of concepts toward an overall idea, or the understanding of the overall idea with the details filled in later. Modern thinkers favor the latter, though without any basis in real world research. Critics believe that trying to teach an overall idea without details (facts) is like trying to build a masonry structure without bricks.
Other concerns are the origins of the drive for learning. To this end, many have split off from the mainstream holding that learning is a primarily self taught thing, and that the ideal learning situation is one that is self taught. According to this dogma, learning at its basic level is all self taught, and class rooms should be eliminated since they do not fit the perfect model of self learning. However, real world results indicate that isolated students fail. Social support seems crucial for sustained learning.
Informal learning theory also concerns itself with book vs real-world experience learning. Many consider most schools severely lacking in the second. Newly emerging hybrid instructional models combining traditional classroom and computer enhanced instruction promise the best of both worlds.
1. Behaviorism
Behaviorism focuses only on the objectively observable aspects of learning and discounts the internal processing that might be associated with the activity. Learning is the acquisition of new behavior through conditioning.
There are two types of possible conditioning:
1) Classical conditioning, where the behavior becomes a reflex response to stimulus as in the case of Pavlov's Dogs.
2) Operant conditioning where there is reinforcement of the behavior by a reward or a punishment.
The theory of operant conditioning was developed by B.F. Skinner and is known as Radical Behaviorism. The word ‘operant’ refers to the way in which behavior ‘operates on the environment’. Briefly, a behavior may result either in reinforcement, which increases the likelihood of the behavior recurring, or punishment, which decreases the likelihood of the behavior recurring. It is important to note that, a punisher is not considered to be punishment if it does not result in the reduction of the behavior, and so the terms punishment and reinforcement are determined as a result of the actions. Within this framework, behaviorists are particularly interested in measurable changes in behavior.
Educational approaches such as applied behavior analysis, curriculum based measurement, and direct instruction have emerged from this model.
2. Cognitivism
Since the Cognitive Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, learning theory has undergone a great deal of change. Much of the empirical framework of Behaviorism was retained even though a new paradigm was begun. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning. Cognitivists consider how human memory works to promote learning. So for example how the natural physiological processes of encoding information into short term memory and long term memory become important to educators.
Once memory theories like the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model and Baddeley's Working memory model were established as a theoretical framework in Cognitive Psychology, new cognitive frameworks of learning began to emerge during the 1970s, 80s, and 90s. Today researchers are concentrating on topics like Cognitive load and Information Processing Theory. These theories of learning are very useful as they guide the Instructional design.
3. Constructivism
Constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts based upon current and past knowledge. In other words, "learning involves constructing one's own knowledge from one's own experiences." Constructivist learning, therefore, is a very personal endeavor, whereby internalized concepts, rules, and general principles may consequently be applied in a practical real-world context. The teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages students to discover principles for themselves and to construct knowledge by working to solve realistic problems. This is also known as knowledge construction as a social process (see social constructivism). We can work to clarify and organize their ideas so we can voice them to others. It gives us opportunities to elaborate on what they learned. We are exposed to the views of others. It enables us to discover flaws and inconsistencies by learning we can get good results. Constructivism itself has many variations, such as Active learning, discovery learning, and knowledge building. Regardless of the variety, constructivism promotes a student's free exploration within a given framework or structure.
4. Informal and post-modern theories
Informal theories of education deal with more practical breakdown of the learning process. One of these deals with whether learning should take place as a building of concepts toward an overall idea, or the understanding of the overall idea with the details filled in later. Modern thinkers favor the latter, though without any basis in real world research. Critics believe that trying to teach an overall idea without details (facts) is like trying to build a masonry structure without bricks.
Other concerns are the origins of the drive for learning. To this end, many have split off from the mainstream holding that learning is a primarily self taught thing, and that the ideal learning situation is one that is self taught. According to this dogma, learning at its basic level is all self taught, and class rooms should be eliminated since they do not fit the perfect model of self learning. However, real world results indicate that isolated students fail. Social support seems crucial for sustained learning.
Informal learning theory also concerns itself with book vs real-world experience learning. Many consider most schools severely lacking in the second. Newly emerging hybrid instructional models combining traditional classroom and computer enhanced instruction promise the best of both worlds.
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